Syllabus of Sociology Paper - II INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE

Indian Society: Perspectives on the Study of Indian Society

(a) Indology (G.S. Ghure)

Indology is a broad field of study that encompasses the history, culture, and languages of India. G.S. Ghure was a pioneer in Indian sociology, and his work on Indology helped to shape our understanding of Indian society. Ghure argued that Indian society is unique and cannot be fully understood using Western theoretical frameworks. He emphasized the importance of studying Indian society on its own terms, taking into account its unique history, culture, and social institutions.

(b) Structural functionalism (M.N. Srinivas)

Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that views society as a system of interconnected parts. Each part of the system plays a vital role in maintaining the stability and functioning of the whole. M.N. Srinivas was a leading structural functionalist sociologist in India. He studied Indian society through the lens of caste, family, and village life. Srinivas argued that caste is a central feature of Indian society, and that it plays an important role in maintaining social order. He also emphasized the importance of the family and the village in Indian society.

(c) Marxist sociology (A.R. Desai)

Marxist sociology is a sociological theory that is based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Marx argued that society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers). The bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat in order to maintain their own power and wealth. A.R. Desai was a leading Marxist sociologist in India. He studied Indian society through the lens of class conflict and exploitation. Desai argued that Indian society is characterized by a deep-seated class divide, and that this divide is the root of many social problems.

Impact of colonial rule on Indian society

(a) Social background of Indian nationalism

Colonial rule had a profound impact on Indian society. One of the most significant impacts was the rise of Indian nationalism. Indian nationalism is a movement that seeks to achieve independence for India from British rule. The social background of Indian nationalism is complex and multifaceted, but it is clear that the colonial experience played a major role in its development.

(b) Modernization of Indian tradition

Colonial rule also led to the modernization of Indian tradition. This involved the introduction of Western ideas and technologies to India. The modernization of Indian tradition was often a contested process, but it ultimately had a significant impact on Indian society.

(c) Protests and movements during the colonial period

The colonial period was also marked by a number of protests and movements. These protests and movements were often aimed at challenging British rule and demanding social and political reforms. Some of the most notable protests and movements of the colonial period include the Indian Independence Movement, the Non-Cooperation Movement, and the Quit India Movement.

(d) Social reforms

The colonial period also saw a number of social reforms. These reforms were often aimed at addressing social problems such as caste discrimination, untouchability, and child marriage. Some of the most notable social reformers of the colonial period include Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and B.R. Ambedkar.

The colonial experience had a profound impact on Indian society. It shaped the development of Indian nationalism, the modernization of Indian tradition, and the rise of social movements and reforms. The legacy of colonial rule continues to be felt in Indian society today.

Social Structure: Rural and Agrarian Social Structure

(a) The idea of Indian village and village studies

The Indian village has been a central focus of social science research in India since the early 20th century. The idea of the Indian village is often romanticized as a place of community and harmony. However, social scientists have shown that the Indian village is a complex and diverse social space, characterized by both inequality and conflict.

Village studies are a type of sociological research that focuses on the social and economic life of Indian villages. Village studies have played an important role in our understanding of rural Indian society. They have documented the changes that have taken place in Indian villages over time, and they have identified the challenges and opportunities that rural communities face today.

(b) Agrarian social structure—evolution of land tenure system, land reforms

The agrarian social structure of India is based on the ownership and cultivation of land. The land tenure system in India has evolved over time, and it has been shaped by a number of factors, including colonialism, caste, and class.

The pre-colonial land tenure system in India was complex and varied from region to region. However, there were some common features. For example, the village was the basic unit of land administration, and there was a variety of land rights, including communal ownership, individual ownership, and tenancy.

Colonial rule had a significant impact on the agrarian social structure of India. The British introduced a new land tenure system that was based on private ownership of land. This system led to the concentration of land in the hands of a few, and it dispossessed many peasants of their land.

After independence, the Indian government introduced a number of land reforms aimed at addressing the inequality in land ownership. These reforms included the abolition of zamindari, the distribution of land to landless peasants, and the ceiling on land ownership.

Land reforms have had a significant impact on the agrarian social structure of India. However, they have not been fully successful in eliminating inequality in land ownership. There is still a significant concentration of land in the hands of a few, and many peasants remain landless.

Conclusion

The rural and agrarian social structure of India is complex and diverse. It has been shaped by a number of factors, including colonialism, caste, and class. Social scientists have played an important role in our understanding of rural Indian society through village studies and research on the agrarian social structure.

(a) Perspectives on the study of caste systems: G.S. Ghurye, M.N. Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille

G.S. Ghurye: Ghurye was a pioneer in the study of caste in India. He argued that caste is a central feature of Indian society, and that it cannot be fully understood using Western theoretical frameworks. He emphasized the importance of studying caste on its own terms, taking into account its unique history, culture, and social institutions. M.N. Srinivas: Srinivas was a leading structural functionalist sociologist in India. He studied caste through the lens of social stratification and social mobility. He argued that caste is a complex system that performs a number of important functions in society, such as providing social order and security. Louis Dumont: Dumont was a French anthropologist who studied caste in India. He argued that caste is a hierarchical system that is based on the principle of purity and pollution. He also argued that caste is a closed system that does not allow for much social mobility. Andre Beteille: Beteille is a leading Indian sociologist who has studied caste extensively. He has argued that caste is a dynamic system that is constantly changing. He has also emphasized the importance of studying caste in relation to other social factors, such as class and gender. (b) Features of caste system The caste system is a complex social hierarchy that is based on birth. People are born into a particular caste, and they are unable to change their caste membership. The caste system is characterized by a number of features, including: Endogamy: Endogamy is the practice of marrying within one's own caste. Hierarchy: The caste system is hierarchical, with some castes being considered higher than others. Restrictions: There are a number of restrictions placed on people from lower castes, such as restrictions on their occupation, social interaction, and religious practices. Occupation: The caste system is often associated with a particular occupation. For example, people from certain castes are traditionally associated with certain occupations, such as farming, carpentry, or blacksmithing. (c) Untouchability-forms and perspectives Untouchability is the most extreme form of caste discrimination. Untouchables are considered to be outside of the caste system, and they are subjected to a number of social and economic disabilities. Some of the forms of untouchability include: Social exclusion: Untouchables are often excluded from social and religious activities. Physical violence: Untouchables are often subjected to physical violence and abuse. Economic discrimination: Untouchables are often denied access to education, employment, and other economic opportunities. There are a number of different perspectives on untouchability. Some people argue that untouchability is a religious institution that is sanctioned by Hinduism. Others argue that untouchability is a social construct that is based on prejudice and discrimination. The Indian government has introduced a number of laws and policies aimed at abolishing untouchability. However, untouchability remains a serious problem in India today. The caste system is a complex and controversial topic. It is important to understand the different perspectives on caste in order to have an informed discussion about the issue.

(a) Definitional problems

Tribal Communities in India: 

There is no single agreed-upon definition of tribal communities in India. The Indian Constitution uses the term "Scheduled Tribes" to refer to a list of 705 tribal communities that are recognized by the government. This list is based on a number of factors, including historical and cultural considerations. However, there is some debate about the accuracy and completeness of the list.

Some experts argue that the term "Scheduled Tribes" is too narrow and does not include all of the tribal communities in India. Others argue that the list is too broad and includes some communities that are not truly tribal.

(b) Geographical spread

Tribal communities are found all over India, but they are concentrated in certain regions, such as the Northeast, Central India, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tribal communities live in a variety of environments, including forests, mountains, and deserts.

(c) Colonial policies and tribes

The British colonial government had a significant impact on tribal communities in India. The British pursued a policy of "divide and rule," and they often used tribal communities to maintain their control over India. The British also introduced a number of laws that restricted the rights of tribal communities, such as the Forest Act of 1865 and the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871.

(d) Issues of integration and autonomy

Tribal communities in India face a number of challenges, including poverty, marginalization, and discrimination. One of the key challenges is the balance between integration and autonomy. Tribal communities want to be able to participate in the mainstream society, but they also want to preserve their unique culture and traditions.

The Indian government has implemented a number of policies and programs aimed at addressing the challenges faced by tribal communities. However, these policies and programs have not always been successful. Tribal communities continue to face a number of challenges, and they remain one of the most marginalized groups in Indian society.

In addition to the above, here are some other important points about tribal communities in India:

• Tribal communities make up about 8.6% of the total population of India.
• Tribal communities have a rich culture and heritage that is distinct from mainstream Indian culture.
• Tribal communities play an important role in the conservation of forests and other natural resources.
• Tribal communities face a number of challenges, including poverty, marginalization, and discrimination.
• The Indian government has implemented a number of policies and programs aimed at addressing the challenges faced by tribal communities. However, these policies and programs have not always been successful.

It is important to understand the unique challenges and opportunities faced by tribal communities in India in order to develop effective policies and programs that promote their well-being.

(a) Agrarian class structure Social Classes in India:

The agrarian class structure of India is based on the ownership and cultivation of land. The main classes in the agrarian class structure are:

• Landlords: Landlords own large tracts of land and lease them out to tenants.
• Tenants: Tenants cultivate land that is owned by others.
• Agricultural laborers: Agricultural laborers work on the land owned by others for a wage.

The agrarian class structure in India is characterized by a high degree of inequality. Landlords own a large proportion of the land, while tenants and agricultural laborers make up a majority of the rural population.

(b) Industrial class structure

The industrial class structure of India is based on the ownership and control of the means of production. The main classes in the industrial class structure are:

• Capitalists: Capitalists own and control the means of production, such as factories and machinery.
• Workers: Workers sell their labor to capitalists in exchange for a wage.

The industrial class structure in India is characterized by a high degree of inequality. Capitalists own a large proportion of the means of production, while workers make up a majority of the industrial workforce.

(c) Middle classes in India

The middle classes in India are a diverse group of people who occupy a variety of social and economic positions. The middle classes include professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, and engineers; small business owners; and government employees.

The middle classes have grown rapidly in India in recent decades. This is due to a number of factors, including economic growth, urbanization, and the expansion of education. The middle classes play an important role in the Indian economy and society.

It is important to note that the class structure in India is complex and fluid. There is a great deal of movement between classes, and there is a significant overlap between classes. For example, many people who are classified as middle class also own land or have small businesses.

The class structure in India has a significant impact on people's lives. Class determines people's access to education, employment, healthcare, and other resources. It also influences people's social status and life chances.

Systems of Kinship in India:

(a) Lineage and descent in India

Lineage is a group of people who are related to each other through a common ancestor. Descent is the way in which lineage is passed down from one generation to the next.

There are two main types of descent systems in India:

• Patrilineal descent: Patrilineal descent is a system in which lineage is traced through the male line.
• Matrilineal descent: Matrilineal descent is a system in which lineage is traced through the female line.

The majority of kinship systems in India are patrilineal. However, there are a number of matrilineal kinship systems in India, particularly in the southern part of the country.

(b) Types of kinship systems

There are a number of different types of kinship systems in India. Some of the most common types include:

• Nuclear family: The nuclear family is composed of a mother, father, and their children.
• Extended family: The extended family includes grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins.
• Joint family: The joint family is a multi-generational family that lives together under one roof.
• Clan: A clan is a large group of people who are related to each other through a common ancestor.
• Gotra: A gotra is a patrilineal clan.

(c) Family and marriage in India

The family is the basic unit of kinship in India. Marriage is a very important social institution in India. It is seen as a sacred union between two families.

There are a number of different types of marriages in India, including:

• Arranged marriages: Arranged marriages are the most common type of marriage in India. In an arranged marriage, the bride and groom are chosen by their families.
• Love marriages: Love marriages are becoming increasingly common in India. In a love marriage, the bride and groom choose each other.

(d) Household dimensions of the family

The household is the group of people who live together and share resources. The household is often the same as the family, but it may also include other people, such as servants or relatives.

The household is an important social unit in India. It provides its members with food, shelter, and emotional support.

(e) Patriarchy, entitlements, and sexual division of labor

Indian society is patriarchal, which means that men have power over women. This is reflected in the kinship system, where men have more rights and entitlements than women.

For example, men are typically the heads of households and they control the family's resources. Men also have more rights to inheritance than women.

There is also a sexual division of labor in Indian society. Men are typically responsible for earning a living, while women are typically responsible for household chores and childcare.

However, it is important to note that the kinship system in India is changing. Women are increasingly gaining more rights and entitlements. There is also a growing movement towards gender equality in India.

Conclusion

The kinship system in India is complex and diverse. It is influenced by a number of factors, including religion, caste, and region. The kinship system plays an important role in Indian society, and it shapes the lives of individuals and families.

a) Religious communities in India

India is a religiously diverse country, with a population that adheres to a wide range of faiths. The majority of Indians (79.8%) identify as Hindus, followed by Muslims (14.2%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.7%), and Jains (0.4%). There are also a number of smaller religious communities in India, such as Zoroastrians, Baha'is, and Jews.

Religious communities play an important role in Indian society. They provide individuals with a sense of identity, belonging, and purpose. They also promote social cohesion and harmony.

(b) Problems of religious minorities

Despite India's commitment to religious freedom, religious minorities in India often face discrimination and violence. Some of the most common problems faced by religious minorities in India include:

• Discrimination in employment and education: Religious minorities are often discriminated against in employment and education. They may be denied jobs or admission to schools and colleges because of their religion.
• Social exclusion: Religious minorities may be socially excluded from mainstream Indian society. They may be denied access to public spaces and services.
• Violence: Religious minorities are often the targets of violence. This violence can range from verbal abuse to physical assault to murder.

The Indian government has taken a number of steps to address the problems faced by religious minorities. However, more needs to be done to protect the rights of religious minorities in India.

Social Change in India:

It is important to note that the problems faced by religious minorities in India are complex and there is no easy solution. However, it is important to raise awareness of these problems and to work towards creating a more inclusive and tolerant society for all Indians.(a) Idea of development planning and mixed economy

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, articulated the idea of development planning and mixed economy for India. He believed that these were essential for achieving rapid and sustainable economic growth, as well as social justice.

Development planning involves the government formulating and implementing policies and programs to achieve economic and social goals. A mixed economy is one that combines elements of both capitalism and socialism.

In the context of India, development planning has involved the government investing in key sectors such as agriculture, industry, education, and healthcare. The government has also established public sector enterprises to provide essential goods and services.

The mixed economy model has been successful in India in driving economic growth and reducing poverty. However, it has also been criticized for creating inequality and corruption.

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Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India

(b) Constitution, law, and social change

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the land. It guarantees a number of fundamental rights to all citizens, including the right to equality, the right to freedom, and the right to social justice.

The Constitution also provides for a number of laws and policies that promote social change. For example, the Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, gender, and other factors. The Constitution also provides for a number of affirmative action programs to help disadvantaged groups.

The Constitution of India has played a major role in promoting social change in India. It has helped to create a more just and equitable society.

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Constitution of India

(c) Education and social change

Education is a powerful tool for social change. It can help to break down social barriers and create a more just and equitable society.

Education can help people to develop the knowledge and skills they need to improve their lives and to contribute to society. It can also help to promote social understanding and tolerance.

The Indian government has made significant investments in education in recent decades. As a result, literacy rates have increased and more and more children are attending school.

However, there are still a number of challenges that need to be addressed in the Indian education system. For example, there is a shortage of qualified teachers and there are a number of disparities in access to quality education.

Despite these challenges, education is playing an increasingly important role in promoting social change in India. It is helping to create a more informed and engaged citizenry. It is also helping to create a more just and equitable society.

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students studying in a classroom in India

Conclusion

The idea of development planning and mixed economy, the Constitution, law, and education have all played a major role in promoting social change in India. These factors have helped to create a more just and equitable society. However, there are still a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order to achieve the full potential of social change in India.(a) Programmes of rural development, Community Development Programme, cooperatives, poverty alleviation schemes

The Indian government has implemented a number of programs and schemes to promote rural development, including:

• Community Development Programme (CDP): The CDP was launched in 1952 with the aim of developing villages as self-reliant units. The CDP focused on a number of areas, including agriculture, irrigation, education, and healthcare.

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  Community Development Programme in India

• Cooperatives: Cooperatives are voluntary associations of people who come together to achieve a common goal. Cooperatives have played an important role in rural development in India by providing farmers with access to credit, inputs, and markets.

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  Cooperatives in India
• Poverty alleviation schemes: The Indian government has implemented a number of poverty alleviation schemes to help the poor and marginalized. These schemes include the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA), the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), and the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY).
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  National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA)

These programmes and schemes have had a significant impact on rural India. They have helped to improve agricultural productivity, reduce poverty, and expand access to basic services. However, there are still a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order to achieve sustainable rural development in India.

(b) Green revolution and social change

The Green Revolution was a period of rapid agricultural growth in India that began in the 1960s. The Green Revolution was characterized by the adoption of high-yielding varieties of seeds, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and the expansion of irrigation.

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Green Revolution in India

The Green Revolution had a number of positive impacts. It led to a significant increase in agricultural productivity and helped to reduce poverty. However, the Green Revolution also had a number of negative impacts, such as increased inequality, environmental degradation, and the displacement of small farmers.

The Green Revolution also had a number of social impacts. It led to the emergence of a new class of farmers who were able to take advantage of the new technologies and markets. The Green Revolution also led to changes in the social status of women and men in rural India.

(c) Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture

The modes of production in Indian agriculture have changed significantly in recent decades. Traditional methods of farming, such as bullock-drawn plows and manual harvesting, are being replaced by mechanized farming methods.

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Traditional farming methods in India

The use of agricultural machinery and inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, has also increased. This has led to an increase in agricultural productivity. However, it has also led to an increase in the cost of cultivation.

The changing modes of production in Indian agriculture have also had a number of social impacts. They have led to the displacement of small farmers and the emergence of a new class of commercial farmers.

(d) Problems of rural labour, bondage, migration

Rural labor in India faces a number of problems, including:

• Low wages: Rural laborers are often paid low wages.
• Insecure employment: Rural laborers often have insecure employment, meaning that they may not have work for all 12 months of the year.
• Exploitation: Rural laborers are often exploited by employers. For example, they may be forced to work long hours for low wages.
• Bondage: Some rural laborers are bonded laborers, which means that they are forced to work for an employer to pay off a debt.
• Migration: Many rural laborers migrate to urban areas in search of work. However, they often face discrimination and exploitation in urban areas.
• 
  
• The Indian government has implemented a number of laws and policies to protect rural laborers. However, these laws and policies are often not enforced effectively.

Overall, the rural and agrarian transformation in India has been complex and uneven. It has led to a number of positive changes, such as increased agricultural productivity and reduced poverty. However, it has also led to a number of negative changes, such as increased inequality, environmental degradation, and the displacement of small farmers.

There are still a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order to achieve sustainable rural development in India. These challenges include:

• Addressing the problems of rural labor, such as low wages, insecure employment, exploitation, bondage, and migration.
• **Reducing inequality between rural and urban

• (a) Evolution of modern industry in India

• Modern industry in India began to develop in the late 19th century. The first major industries to develop were textiles and steel. These industries were established by British companies, which took advantage of India's cheap labor and raw materials.

  In the early 20th century, other industries began to develop, such as chemicals, engineering, and cement. These industries were largely Indian-owned and were established to meet the needs of the growing Indian market.

  After independence in 1947, the Indian government played a major role in promoting industrial development. The government established public sector enterprises in a number of key industries, such as steel, petroleum, and engineering.

  The Indian economy liberalized in the early 1990s, and this led to a surge in foreign investment in the industrial sector. As a result, a number of new industries have developed in India, such as information technology and electronics.

  (b) Growth of urban settlements in India

  Urbanization has grown rapidly in India in recent decades. The percentage of the Indian population living in urban areas has increased from 27.8% in 1991 to 34.5% in 2021.

  The growth of urbanization in India has been driven by a number of factors, including economic growth, rural-to-urban migration, and the expansion of education and healthcare services in urban areas.

  The growth of urbanization has had a number of positive impacts on India. It has led to increased economic growth, job creation, and access to basic services. However, it has also led to a number of challenges, such as increased inequality, traffic congestion, and pollution.

  (c) Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization

  The working class in India is a diverse group of people who work in a variety of sectors, including agriculture, industry, and services. The working class has grown rapidly in recent decades, due to economic growth and urbanization.

  The working class in India is divided into a number of different groups, based on their occupation, skill level, and income. The main groups in the working class are:

  • Formal sector workers: Formal sector workers are employed in registered establishments and have access to social security benefits.
  • Informal sector workers: Informal sector workers are employed in unregistered establishments and do not have access to social security benefits.
  • Migrant workers: Migrant workers are workers who have migrated from rural to urban areas in search of work.

  The working class in India has played an important role in the country's economic development. However, the working class also faces a number of challenges, such as low wages, insecure employment, and exploitation.

  (d) Informal sector, child labour

  The informal sector is a large and growing sector of the Indian economy. It is estimated that over 80% of the Indian workforce is employed in the informal sector.

  The informal sector includes a wide range of activities, such as street vending, construction, and domestic work. Informal sector workers are often paid low wages and do not have access to social security benefits.

  Child labor is a major problem in the informal sector. Children are often employed in hazardous and exploitative jobs. The Indian government has implemented a number of laws and policies to combat child labor, but these laws and policies are often not enforced effectively.

  (e) Slums and deprivation in urban areas

  Slums are a major problem in urban India. It is estimated that over 65 million people live in slums in India.

  Slums are characterized by poor housing conditions, inadequate sanitation, and lack of access to basic services. Slum dwellers are often poor and marginalized.

  The Indian government has implemented a number of programs to improve the conditions in slums. However, these programs have not been very successful. There is still a need to do more to address the problem of slums and deprivation in urban areas.

  Overall, industrialization and urbanization have had a mixed impact on India. They have led to economic growth and job creation. However, they have also led to increased inequality, traffic congestion, pollutio

  The Indian government needs to address the challenges posed by industrialization and urbanization in order to ensure sustainable development. The government needs to invest in infrastructure, education, and healthcare to improve the lives of all Indians.

• (a) Nation, democracy and citizenship

  Nation: A nation is a group of people who share a common identity, such as language, culture, or history.

  Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which the people hold power and exercise it through elected representatives.

  Citizenship: Citizenship is the status of being a member of a particular nation. It is a legal status that gives citizens certain rights and privileges.

  In India, the nation is founded on the principles of democracy and secularism. Indian citizens have a number of rights and privileges, including the right to vote, the right to freedom of speech, and the right to equality.

  (b) Political parties, pressure groups, social and political elite

  Political parties: Political parties are organizations that seek to gain political power through elections.

  Pressure groups: Pressure groups are organizations that seek to influence government policy.

  Social and political elite: The social and political elite are a small group of people who have a high degree of power and influence in society.

  Political parties, pressure groups, and the social and political elite all play important roles in Indian politics. Political parties compete in elections to form government. Pressure groups try to influence government policy to benefit their members or causes. The social and political elite use their power and influence to shape public policy.

  (c) Regionalism and decentralization of power

  Regionalism: Regionalism is the feeling of attachment to a particular region or state.

  Decentralization of power: Decentralization of power is the transfer of power from the central government to lower levels of government, such as state and local governments.

  Regionalism is a strong force in Indian politics. Each region has its own unique culture, language, and history. This has led to the rise of regional political parties that represent the interests of their respective regions.

  The Indian government has taken a number of steps to decentralize power. For example, the Constitution of India establishes a three-tier system of government, with power divided between the central government, state governments, and local governments.

  (d) Secularization

  Secularization: Secularization is the process of separating religion from government and public life.

  India is a secular country. The Constitution of India guarantees freedom of religion to all citizens. The government does not interfere in the religious affairs of citizens.

  However, secularism is a contested concept in India. Some people believe that the government should be more involved in promoting religious values. Others believe that the government should remain strictly secular.

  Conclusion

  Politics and society are closely intertwined in India. The nation, democracy, citizenship, political parties, pressure groups, social and political elite, regionalism, decentralization of power, and secularization all play important roles in Indian politics.

  It is important to understand these factors in order to understand Indian politics and society.n, and the growth of slums.

• Social Movements in Modern India:

• (a) Peasants and farmers' movements.

• (b) Women’s movement.

• (c) Backward classes & Dalit movements.

• (d) Environmental movements.

• (e) Ethnicity and Identity movements.

• Social Movements in Modern India

  (a) Peasants and farmers' movements

  The Tebhaga movement in Bengal (1946-47) was a peasant movement that demanded a two-thirds share of the produce for sharecroppers. It was a successful movement that led to significant improvements in the lives of sharecroppers.

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  Tebhaga movement in Bengal

  The Telangana movement (1946-51) was a peasant uprising in the Telangana region of Hyderabad State. It was a protracted and bloody struggle that resulted in the formation of a new state of Andhra Pradesh in 1956.

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  Telangana movement

  The Bhoodan movement (1951-74) was a movement led by Vinoba Bhave to collect land donations from landowners and distribute them to landless peasants. It was a largely symbolic movement, but it did help to raise awareness of the issue of landlessness.

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  Bhoodan movement

  The Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985-present) is a movement that is fighting against the construction of large dams on the Narmada river. The movement has been successful in delaying and modifying some of the dam projects, but it is still ongoing.

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  Narmada Bachao Andolan

  The Shetkari Sanghatana movement in Maharashtra (1980-present) is a movement that is fighting for the rights of farmers. The movement has been successful in securing better prices for agricultural products and in improving the access of farmers to credit and other resources.

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  Shetkari Sanghatana movement

  (b) Women’s movement

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  Hindu Marriage Act 1955

  The passage of the Hindu Marriage Act in 1955 was a major victory for the Indian women's movement. The act gave women more rights in marriage and divorce.

  The establishment of the National Commission for Women in 1992 was another important milestone for the Indian women's movement. The commission is a body that investigates and addresses complaints of gender-based discrimination.

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  National Commission for Women

  The passage of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act in 2005 was another major victory for the Indian women's movement. The act provides protection to women from domestic violence.

  The #MeToo movement in 2017 was a global movement that raised awareness of sexual harassment and assault. The movement had a significant impact in India, where it led to a number of high-profile cases of sexual harassment and assault being brought to light.

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  #MeToo movement

  (c) Backward classes & Dalit movements

  The Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu (1921-1944) was a movement that fought against the oppression of backward classes and Dalits. The movement was successful in promoting social reform and in improving the lives of backward classes and Dalits.

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  Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu

  The Ram Manohar Lohia-led movement for social justice in the 1950s and 1960s was a movement that fought for the rights of backward classes and Dalits. The movement was successful in raising awareness of the issues faced by backward classes and Dalits and in pressuring the government to take action.

  Opens in a new windowwww.ambedkaritetoday.com

  Ram Manohar Lohia-led movement for social justice

  The Dalit Panther movement in the 1970s was a militant movement that fought against the oppression of Dalits. The movement was successful in raising awareness of the issues faced by Dalits and in challenging the status quo.

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  Dalit Panther movement

  The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) was founded in 1984 to promote the interests of backward classes and Dalits. The BSP has become a major political force in India and has won elections in a number of states.

  Opens in a new windowen.wikipedia.org

  Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

  (d) Environmental movements

  The Chipko movement (1973-present) is a movement that is fighting against deforestation. The movement is known for its use of non-violent tactics, such as hugging trees to prevent them from being cut down.

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  Chipko movement

  The Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985-present) is a movement that is fighting against the construction of large dams on the Narmada river. The movement is concerned about the environmental and social impacts of the dam

  Opens in a new windowthewire.in

  Narmada Bachao Andolan

• Population Dynamics:
  Population size, growth, composition and distribution.
  Components of population growth: birth, death, migration.
  Population Policy and family planning.
  Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health.
  Challenges of Social Transformation:
  (a) Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems and sustainability.
  (b) Poverty, deprivation and inequalities.
  (c) Violence against women.
  (d) Caste conflicts.
  (e) Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism.
  (f) Illiteracy and disparities in education.