FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY

Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of Sociology

Sociology emerged as an academic discipline in the 19th century in Europe, during a period of rapid social change. The Industrial Revolution was transforming the way people lived and worked, and the French Revolution had overthrown the old feudal order. These changes were accompanied by new social problems, such as poverty, crime, and urban squalor.

European intellectuals began to look for ways to understand and address these problems. Auguste Comte, often considered the father of sociology, coined the term "sociology" in 1838. Comte believed that sociology could be used to study society in a scientific way, just as physics and chemistry could be used to study the natural world.

Other early sociologists, such as Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber, made significant contributions to the development of the discipline. Marx focused on the relationship between social class and economic conflict. Durkheim studied the role of social institutions, such as religion and education, in maintaining social order. Weber analyzed the relationship between power, authority, and legitimacy.

The emergence of sociology was a response to the need to understand and address the social changes that were taking place in Europe. Sociology has since grown into a global discipline that studies all aspects of human society.

(b) Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences

Sociology is a broad discipline that encompasses a wide range of topics, including:

• Social theory: This branch of sociology is concerned with developing and testing theories about society.
• Social research: This branch of sociology is concerned with collecting and analyzing data about society.
• Social problems: This branch of sociology is concerned with studying and addressing social problems, such as poverty, crime, and inequality.
• Social institutions: This branch of sociology is concerned with studying the role of social institutions, such as the family, religion, and education, in society.
• Social groups and organizations: This branch of sociology is concerned with studying the formation, structure, and dynamics of social groups and organizations.
• Social change: This branch of sociology is concerned with studying the causes and consequences of social change.

Sociology is closely related to other social sciences, such as anthropology, economics, and political science. However, sociology is distinguished from other social sciences by its focus on the social aspects of human behavior.

(c) Sociology and common sense

Common sense is the knowledge that we acquire through our everyday experiences. It is often based on personal observations and anecdotes. Sociology, on the other hand, is based on systematic research. Sociologists use a variety of methods, such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups, to collect data about society.

Sociology can challenge our common sense beliefs about society. For example, we may commonly believe that poverty is the result of individual laziness. However, sociological research has shown that poverty is often caused by structural factors, such as lack of access to education and employment opportunities.

Sociology can help us to better understand the world around us and to develop more informed solutions to social problems.

Conclusion

Sociology is a fascinating and important discipline that can help us to better understand the world around us. By studying society in a scientific way, sociologists can challenge our common sense beliefs and develop more informed solutions to social problems.

(a) Science, scientific method, and critique

Science is a systematic way of gaining knowledge about the world. It involves collecting and analyzing data, developing and testing theories, and drawing conclusions about how the world works. The scientific method is a process of inquiry that is used to test hypotheses and develop theories. It involves the following steps: Identify a problem or question. Form a hypothesis. Collect data. Analyze the data. Draw conclusions. Communicate the findings. Science is not perfect, and it is important to be critical of scientific findings. Some potential sources of error in science include: Bias: Scientists may be biased by their own beliefs or experiences. Measurement error: Scientists may make mistakes when measuring data. Sampling error: Scientists may not collect a representative sample of the population they are studying. Despite its limitations, science is the best way we have of gaining knowledge about the world. It is a rigorous process that is constantly being refined and improved. (b) Major theoretical strands of research methodology There are two major theoretical strands of research methodology in sociology: positivism and interpretivism. Positivism is a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of objective, scientific inquiry. Positivist sociologists believe that social phenomena can be studied in the same way as natural phenomena. They use quantitative methods, such as surveys and experiments, to collect data. Interpretivism is a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of understanding the subjective experiences of individuals. Interpretive sociologists believe that social phenomena can only be understood through the lens of culture and meaning. They use qualitative methods, such as interviews and focus groups, to collect data. (c) Positivism and its critique Positivism has been criticized for being too simplistic and for ignoring the subjective experiences of individuals. Critics argue that positivism is not appropriate for studying social phenomena, which are complex and often involve meaning and interpretation. (d) Fact value and objectivity It is important to distinguish between fact and value. Facts are statements that can be verified or falsified. Values are statements about what is good or bad, right or wrong. Objectivity is the goal of scientific inquiry. It means that scientists should strive to collect and analyze data without bias. However, it is important to note that complete objectivity is impossible. Scientists are human beings, and they bring their own biases and experiences to their work. (e) Non-positivist methodologies Non-positivist methodologies are qualitative methods that are used to collect data on the subjective experiences of individuals. Some examples of non-positivist methodologies include: Interviews: Interviews are in-depth conversations with participants. They can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, such as personal experiences, beliefs, and attitudes. Focus groups: Focus groups are group discussions with participants. They can be used to collect data on a specific topic or issue. Ethnography: Ethnography is a research method that involves immersing oneself in a particular culture or group for an extended period of time. This allows the researcher to collect data on the group's norms, values, and beliefs. Non-positivist methodologies can be used to study a wide range of social phenomena, such as poverty, crime, and education. They can also be used to study the experiences of marginalized groups, such as women, minorities, and LGBTQ people. Conclusion The scientific method is the best way we have of gaining knowledge about the world. However, it is important to be critical of scientific findings and to be aware of the limitations of science. There are two major theoretical strands of research methodology in sociology: positivism and interpretivism. Each strand has its own strengths and weaknesses. Non-positivist methodologies are qualitative methods that are used to collect data on the subjective experiences of individuals. They can be used to study a wide range of social phenomena, including the experiences of marginalized groups.

(a) Qualitative and quantitative methods

Quantitative research is a research approach that uses numerical data to draw conclusions. It is often used to study large populations and to test hypotheses. Some examples of quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis.

Qualitative research is a research approach that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals. It is often used to study small groups and to explore complex social phenomena. Some examples of qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, and ethnography.

(b) Techniques of data collection

There are a variety of data collection techniques that can be used in both quantitative and qualitative research. Some common techniques include:

• Surveys: Surveys are questionnaires that are distributed to a sample of people. They can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, such as demographics, opinions, and behaviors.
• Interviews: Interviews are in-depth conversations with participants. They can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, such as personal experiences, beliefs, and attitudes.
• Focus groups: Focus groups are group discussions with participants. They can be used to collect data on a specific topic or issue.
• Ethnography: Ethnography is a research method that involves immersing oneself in a particular culture or group for an extended period of time. This allows the researcher to collect data on the group's norms, values, and beliefs.
• Secondary data analysis: Secondary data analysis is the process of analyzing data that has already been collected by others. This can be done using a variety of quantitative and qualitative methods.

(c) Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability, and validity

• Variables: Variables are any characteristic that can change. In research, variables are used to study the relationships between different phenomena.
• Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of a population to study. A good sample should be representative of the overall population.
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses are tested using data collected from a sample of the population.
• Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement. A reliable measurement is one that produces the same results each time it is used.
• Validity: Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement. A valid measurement is one that measures what it is intended to measure.

These are just a few of the basic concepts involved in research methods and analysis. For more information, please consult a textbook on research methods or consult with a research expert.

Conclusion

Research methods and analysis are essential for gaining knowledge about the world around us. By using sound research methods, we can collect data that is reliable and valid. We can then use this data to test hypotheses and draw conclusions about the relationships between different phenomena.

(a) Karl Marx

Historical materialism: Marx believed that the material conditions of a society, such as its economic system and technology, shape its social and political structures. Mode of production: The mode of production is the way in which goods and services are produced in a society. It consists of two main components: the forces of production (e.g., technology, labor) and the relations of production (e.g., who owns the means of production, who works for whom). Alienation: Alienation is a state of estrangement from one's work, one's self, and other people. Marx argued that alienation is a product of capitalism, in which workers are separated from the means of production and have little control over their work. Class struggle: Marx believed that society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers). He argued that these two classes have opposing interests, which leads to class conflict.

(b) Émile Durkheim

Division of labor: Durkheim believed that the division of labor is essential for social order and solidarity. He argued that the division of labor leads to the development of specialized occupations and interdependence, which binds people together. Social fact: A social fact is a way of doing, thinking, or feeling that is external to the individual and coercive. Durkheim argued that social facts can be studied scientifically, just like natural phenomena. Suicide: Durkheim studied suicide to understand the causes of social order and disorder. He argued that suicide rates are higher in societies with low social cohesion. Religion and society: Durkheim believed that religion plays an important role in social cohesion. He argued that religion provides people with a sense of shared identity and values. (c) Max Weber Social action: Social action is any behavior that is oriented towards another person or object. Weber argued that social action is motivated by meaning and interpretation. Ideal types: Ideal types are abstract concepts that are used to understand social phenomena. Weber developed ideal types of authority, bureaucracy, and the Protestant ethic. Authority: Authority is the legitimate right to exercise power. Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Bureaucracy: A bureaucracy is a type of organization that is characterized by hierarchy, rules, and impersonality. Weber argued that bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization. Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism: Weber argued that the Protestant ethic, which emphasizes hard work and self-discipline, played a role in the development of capitalism. (d) Talcott Parsons Social system: A social system is a set of interrelated parts that work together to achieve a common goal. Parsons argued that social systems are composed of four main subsystems: the economic system, the political system, the kinship system, and the cultural system. Pattern variables: Pattern variables are binary choices that individuals make when interacting with others. Parsons identified four pairs of pattern variables: affectivity/neutrality, particularism/universalism, diffuseness/specificity, and achievement/ascription. (e) Robert K. Merton Latent and manifest functions: Latent functions are the unintended and unrecognized consequences of social behavior. Manifest functions are the intended and recognized consequences of social behavior. Conformity and deviance: Conformity is behavior that meets the expectations of society. Deviance is behavior that violates the expectations of society. Reference groups: Reference groups are groups that individuals use to compare themselves and evaluate their own behavior. (f) George Herbert Mead Self and identity: Mead argued that the self is not something that we are born with, but rather something that we develop through social interaction. He argued that we learn who we are by reflecting on how others see us. These are just a few of the key concepts that each of these sociological thinkers has contributed to the field. Their ideas continue to be relevant today, and they help us to understand a wide range of social phenomena.

(a) Concepts

• Equality: Equality means that everyone is treated the same, regardless of their social status, background, or other characteristics.
• Inequality: Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, power, and opportunities in a society.
• Hierarchy: A hierarchy is a social system in which people are ranked from highest to lowest.
• Exclusion: Exclusion refers to the process by which certain groups of people are denied access to resources, opportunities, and social participation.
• Poverty: Poverty is a state of deprivation in which people lack the basic necessities of life, such as food, water, shelter, and clothing.
• Deprivation: Deprivation is the lack of something essential, such as food, water, shelter, or education.

(b) Theories of social stratification

• Structural functionalist theory: Structural functionalist theory argues that social stratification is necessary for the smooth functioning of society. It claims that different social strata perform different functions that are essential for the survival of society.
• Marxist theory: Marxist theory argues that social stratification is the result of the capitalist economic system. It claims that the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) exploit the proletariat (workers) in order to maintain their own power and wealth.
• Weberian theory: Weberian theory argues that social stratification is based on three dimensions: class, status, and power. Class is based on economic position, status is based on social prestige, and power is based on the ability to control others.

(c) Dimensions

• Social stratification of class: Class is based on economic inequality. People are divided into different social classes based on their income, wealth, and occupation.
• Status groups: Status groups are groups that are based on social prestige. People are assigned a social status based on their occupation, education, and family background.
• Gender, ethnicity, and race: Gender, ethnicity, and race are also important dimensions of social stratification. People from different gender, ethnic, and racial groups often experience different levels of inequality and discrimination.

(d) Social mobility

• Open and closed systems: An open social system allows for social mobility, while a closed social system does not. In an open social system, people can move up or down the social ladder based on their own merits. In a closed social system, people's social status is determined by their birth.
• Types of mobility: There are two main types of social mobility: intergenerational mobility and intragenerational mobility. Intergenerational mobility refers to the movement of people from one social class to another between generations. Intragenerational mobility refers to the movement of people from one social class to another within their own generation.
• Sources and causes of mobility: There are a number of factors that can contribute to social mobility, including education, occupation, marriage, and social networks.

Social stratification and mobility are complex and important social phenomena. They have a significant impact on people's lives and opportunities.(a) Social organization of work in different types of society

• Slave society: In slave societies, work is organized around the exploitation of enslaved people. Enslaved people are forced to work long hours for little or no pay. They have no control over their work and are often subjected to physical and emotional abuse.
• Feudal society: In feudal societies, work is organized around a system of land ownership and vassalage. Peasants work on the land owned by nobles in exchange for protection and other benefits. Peasants are not enslaved, but they have little freedom and are often forced to work long hours for little pay.
• Industrial capitalist society: In industrial capitalist societies, work is organized around the production of goods and services for sale on the market. Workers are employed by businesses and are paid for their labor. Workers have more freedom than in slave or feudal societies, but they are still subject to the demands of their employers.

(b) Formal and informal organization of work

• Formal organization of work: Formal organizations of work are characterized by a clear hierarchy, rules and regulations, and impersonality. Examples of formal organizations of work include businesses, government agencies, and schools.
• Informal organization of work: Informal organizations of work are characterized by personal relationships, mutual aid, and flexibility. Examples of informal organizations of work include families, friendship groups, and religious organizations.

(c) Labor and society

Labor is the work that people do to produce goods and services. It is an essential part of society, and it plays a vital role in the economy. Labor can be paid or unpaid. Paid labor is work that is done in exchange for money or other forms of compensation. Unpaid labor is work that is done without compensation, such as housework and volunteer work.

Labor is important for society because it allows us to produce the goods and services that we need to survive and thrive. It also provides people with a sense of purpose and identity. Labor can also be a source of conflict and inequality, as some workers are paid more and have better working conditions than others.

Here are some examples of how work and economic life are changing in the 21st century:

• The rise of the gig economy: The gig economy is a type of economy in which people work on short-term contracts or on a freelance basis. This is a growing trend, as more and more people are choosing to work outside of traditional employment arrangements.
• The increasing importance of technology: Technology is playing an increasingly important role in work and economic life. This is leading to the creation of new jobs and the automation of existing jobs.
• The globalized economy: The economy is becoming more globalized, meaning that businesses are increasingly operating on an international scale. This is creating new opportunities for workers, but it is also leading to increased competition and job insecurity.

These are just a few examples of the many ways in which work and economic life are changing in the 21st century. These changes are creating new challenges and opportunities for workers and businesses alike. It is important to understand these changes in order to adapt and succeed in the new economy.Y

• Structural functionalist theory: Structural functionalist theory argues that power is necessary for the smooth functioning of society. It claims that different social strata have different levels of power, and that this is necessary for the maintenance of social order.
• Marxist theory: Marxist theory argues that power is based on economic inequality. It claims that the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) have power over the proletariat (workers) because they control the means of production.
• Weberian theory: Weberian theory argues that power is based on three dimensions: class, status, and party. Class is based on economic position, status is based on social prestige, and party is based on political affiliation.

(b) Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups and political parties

• Power elite: The power elite is a small group of people who have a disproportionate amount of power in society. They may be wealthy business leaders, political leaders, or military leaders.
• Bureaucracy: A bureaucracy is a type of organization that is characterized by hierarchy, rules and regulations, and impersonality. Bureaucracies often have a great deal of power over people's lives.
• Pressure groups: Pressure groups are organizations that try to influence government policy. They may represent a particular interest group, such as business or labor.
• Political parties: Political parties are organizations that compete for control of government. They typically have different ideologies and platforms.

(c) Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology

• Nation: A nation is a group of people who share a common culture, history, and language.
• State: A state is a political entity that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.
• Citizenship: Citizenship is the status of being a member of a particular state. Citizens have certain rights and responsibilities, such as the right to vote and the responsibility to pay taxes.
• Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which the people have the power.
• Civil society: Civil society is the sphere of social life that is outside of the state and the market. It includes organizations such as non-governmental organizations, religious groups, and community organizations.
• Ideology: An ideology is a system of beliefs that explains the world and offers a vision for how it should be changed.

(d) Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution

• Protest: A protest is a public expression of dissatisfaction with the status quo. Protests can take many forms, such as marches, demonstrations, and boycotts.
• Agitation: Agitation is the process of trying to stir up public support for a particular cause. This can be done through speeches, writing, and other forms of communication.
• Social movements: A social movement is a group of people who are working together to achieve a common goal. Social movements can be large or small, and they can be focused on a variety of issues, such as civil rights, environmental protection, and social justice.
• Collective action: Collective action is any action that is taken by a group of people to achieve a common goal. Collective action can include protests, strikes, and boycotts.
• Revolution: A revolution is a sudden and radical change in the social order. Revolutions can be violent or nonviolent, and they can be successful or unsuccessful.

Politics and society are closely intertwined. Politics is the process of making decisions that affect the whole society. Society is the social structure in which people live and interact. Political decisions can have a significant impact on people's lives, and social movements can influence political decisions.

It is important to understand the relationship between politics and society in order to participate effectively in the political process and to understand the social forces that shape our world.

(a) Sociological theories of power

There are a number of sociological theories of power, including:

• Structural functionalist theory: Structural functionalist theory argues that power is necessary for the smooth functioning of society. It claims that different social strata have different levels of power, and that this is necessary for the maintenance of social order.
• Marxist theory: Marxist theory argues that power is based on economic inequality. It claims that the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) have power over the proletariat (workers) because they control the means of production.
• Weberian theory: Weberian theory argues that power is based on three dimensions: class, status, and party. Class is based on economic position, status is based on social prestige, and party is based on political affiliation.

(b) Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups and political parties

• Power elite: The power elite is a small group of people who have a disproportionate amount of power in society. They may be wealthy business leaders, political leaders, or military leaders.
• Bureaucracy: A bureaucracy is a type of organization that is characterized by hierarchy, rules and regulations, and impersonality. Bureaucracies often have a great deal of power over people's lives.
• Pressure groups: Pressure groups are organizations that try to influence government policy. They may represent a particular interest group, such as business or labor.
• Political parties: Political parties are organizations that compete for control of government. They typically have different ideologies and platforms.

(c) Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology

• Nation: A nation is a group of people who share a common culture, history, and language.
• State: A state is a political entity that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.
• Citizenship: Citizenship is the status of being a member of a particular state. Citizens have certain rights and responsibilities, such as the right to vote and the responsibility to pay taxes.
• Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which the people have the power.
• Civil society: Civil society is the sphere of social life that is outside of the state and the market. It includes organizations such as non-governmental organizations, religious groups, and community organizations.
• Ideology: An ideology is a system of beliefs that explains the world and offers a vision for how it should be changed.

(d) Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution

• Protest: A protest is a public expression of dissatisfaction with the status quo. Protests can take many forms, such as marches, demonstrations, and boycotts.
• Agitation: Agitation is the process of trying to stir up public support for a particular cause. This can be done through speeches, writing, and other forms of communication.
• Social movements: A social movement is a group of people who are working together to achieve a common goal. Social movements can be large or small, and they can be focused on a variety of issues, such as civil rights, environmental protection, and social justice.
• Collective action: Collective action is any action that is taken by a group of people to achieve a common goal. Collective action can include protests, strikes, and boycotts.
• Revolution: A revolution is a sudden and radical change in the social order. Revolutions can be violent or nonviolent, and they can be successful or unsuccessful.

Politics and society are closely intertwined. Politics is the process of making decisions that affect the whole society. Society is the social structure in which people live and interact. Political decisions can have a significant impact on people's lives, and social movements can influence political decisions.

It is important to understand the relationship between politics and society in order to participate effectively in the political process and to understand the social forces that shape our world.

Religion and Society

(a) Sociological theories of religion There are a number of sociological theories of religion, including: Functionalist theory: Functionalist theory argues that religion plays an important role in society by providing social cohesion, moral guidance, and a sense of meaning and purpose. Marxist theory: Marxist theory argues that religion is an instrument of oppression that is used by the ruling class to control the working class. Weberian theory: Weberian theory argues that religion can be a powerful force for social change. (b) Types of religious practices There are many different types of religious practices, including: Animism: Animism is the belief that all things have a spirit. Monism: Monism is the belief in one god. Pluralism: Pluralism is the belief in multiple gods. Sects: Sects are small religious groups that have broken away from a larger religious group. Cults: Cults are religious groups that are characterized by charismatic leadership and isolation from the outside world. (c) Religion in modern society Religion continues to play an important role in modern society, although its influence is declining in some parts of the world. There are a number of trends related to religion in modern society, including: Religion and science: Religion and science are often seen as being in conflict, but there is a growing movement that seeks to reconcile the two. Secularization: Secularization is the process by which religion becomes less important in society. Religious revivalism: Religious revivalism is a resurgence of religious interest and activity. Fundamentalism: Fundamentalism is a form of religious extremism that is characterized by a literal interpretation of scripture and a rejection of modern values. Systems of Kinship (a) Family, household, and marriage The family is the basic unit of kinship in most societies. The household is the group of people who live together and share resources. Marriage is a social union that is recognized by society. (b) Types and forms of family There are many different types and forms of family, including: Nuclear family: The nuclear family is composed of a mother, father, and their children. Extended family: The extended family includes grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Single-parent family: The single-parent family is headed by a single parent. Blended family: The blended family is formed when two people with children from previous relationships marry or cohabit. (c) Lineage and descent Lineage is a group of people who are related to each other through a common ancestor. Descent is the way in which lineage is passed down from one generation to the next. (d) Patriarchy and sexual division of labor Patriarchy is a social system in which men have power over women. Sexual division of labor is the assignment of different roles and tasks to men and women. (e) Contemporary trends There are a number of contemporary trends related to kinship, including: The decline of marriage: The marriage rate has been declining in many countries in recent decades. The rise of cohabitation: Cohabitation is the practice of two people living together without being married. The increase in single-parent families: The number of single-parent families has been increasing in many countries. The diversification of family forms: There is a growing diversity of family forms, such as blended families and same-sex couples. Social Change in Modern Society (a) Sociological theories of social change There are a number of sociological theories of social change, including: Evolutionary theory: Evolutionary theory argues that society changes in a linear fashion from simple to complex. Conflict theory: Conflict theory argues that social change is the result of conflict between different social groups. Functionalist theory: Functionalist theory argues that social change is the result of adaptations to changes in the environment. (b) Development and dependency Development is the process of economic and social progress. Dependency is the situation in which a country is economically dependent on another country. (c) Agents of social change Agents of social change are individuals or groups that promote social change. Some examples of agents of social change include: Social movements Political parties Religious organizations Media Education (d) Education and social change Education is a powerful agent of social change. It can help people to develop the knowledge and skills they need to participate effectively in society and to challenge the status quo. (e) Science and technology and social change Science and technology have a profound impact on social change. They can lead to new inventions, new industries, and new ways of living.